-Responds well to an indoor environment
-Height 2-3 meter
-Yield up to 1kg
-Harvest mid to end September

Gregor Johann Mendel (July 20, 1822 – January 6, 1884) was an Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants.

Mendel showed that the inheritance of traits follows particular laws, which were later named after him. The significance of Mendel’s work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century. Its rediscovery prompted the foundation ofthe discipline of genetics.

Biography

Mendel was born into a German-speaking family in Heinzendorf, Austrian Silesia, Austrian Empire (now Hynčice, Czech Republic), and was baptized two days later. He was the son of Anton and Rosine Mendel, and had one older sister and one younger. During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener, studied beekeeping, and as a young man attended the Philosophical Institute in Olomouc in 1840-1843. Upon recommendation of his physics teacher Friedrich Franz, he entered the Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas in Brno in 1843. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering monastic life. In 1851 he was sent to the University of Vienna to study, returning to his abbey in 1853 as a teacher, principally of physics.

Gregor Mendel, who is known as the “father of modern genetics”, was inspired by both his professors at university and his colleagues at the monastery to study variation in plants, and he conducted his study in the monastery’s garden. Between 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some 29,000 pea plants (i.e. Pisum sativum). This study showed that one in four pea plants had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments brought forth two generalizations which later became known as Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance.

Mendel read his paper, “Experiments on Plant Hybridization“, at two meetings of the Natural History Society of Brünn in Moravia in 1865. When Mendel’s paper was published in 1866 in Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brünn, it had little impact and was cited about three times over the next thirty-five years. His paper was criticized at the time, but is now considered a seminal work.

After Mendel completed his work with peas, he turned to experimenting with honeybees, in order to extend his work to animals. He produced a hybrid strain (so vicious they were destroyed), but failed to generate a clear picture of their heredity because of the difficulties in controlling mating behaviours of queen bees. He also described novel plant species, and these are denoted with the botanical author abbreviation “Mendel”.

Elevated as abbot in 1868, his scientific work largely ended as Mendel became consumed with his increased administrative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil government over their attempt to impose special taxes on religious institutions.

At first Mendel’s work was rejected, and it was not widely accepted until after he died. The common belief at the time was that pangenes were responsible for inheritance. Even Darwin’s theory of evolution used pangenesis instead of Mendel’s model of inheritance. The modern synthesis uses Mendelian genetics.

Mendel died on January 6, 1884, at age 61, in Brno, Austria-Hungary (now Czech Republic), from chronic nephritis. Czech composer Leoš Janáček played the organ at his funeral. After his death, the following abbot burned all papers in Mendel’s collection.

Rediscovery of Mendel’s work

It was not until the early 20th century that the importance of his ideas was realized. In 1900, his work was rediscovered by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns. Though Erich von Tschermak was originally also credited with rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because he did not understand Mendel’s laws. Mendel’s results were quickly replicated, and genetic linkage quickly worked out. Biologists flocked to the theory, even though it was not yet applicable to many phenomena, it sought to give a genotype understanding of heredity which they felt was lacking in previous studies of heredity which focused on phenotypic approaches. Most prominent of these latter approaches was the biometric school of Karl Pearson and W.F.R. Weldon, which was based heavily on statistical studies of phenotype variation. The strongest opposition to this school came from William Bateson, who perhaps did the most in the early days of publicising the benefits of Mendel’s theory (the word “genetics“, and much of the discipline’s other terminology, originated with Bateson). This debate between the biometricians and the Mendelians was extremely vigorous in the first two decades of the twentieth century, with the biometricians claiming statistical and mathematical rigor, whereas the Mendelians claimed a better understanding of biology. In the end, the two approaches were combined as the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology, especially by work conducted by R. A. Fisher as early as 1918.

Mendel’s experimental results have later been the object of considerable dispute. Fisher analyzed the results of the F2 (second filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1. Only a few would accuse Mendel of scientific malpractice or call it a scientific fraud — reproduction of his experiments has demonstrated the validity of his hypothesis — however, the results have continued to be a mystery for many, though it is often cited as an example of confirmation bias. This might arise if he detected an approximate 3 to 1 ratio early in his experiments with a small sample size, and continued collecting more data until the results conformed more nearly to an exact ratio. It is sometimes suggested that he may have censored his results, and that his seven traits each occur on a separate chromosome pair, an extremely unlikely occurrence if they were chosen at random. In fact, the genes Mendel studied occurred in only four linkage groups, and only one gene pair (out of 21 possible) is close enough to show segregation distortion; this is not a pair that Mendel studied.

See also

References

Bibliography

External links

• Mendel’s Paper in English
• Mendel Museum of Genetics
• 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia entry, “Mendel, Mendelism”
• Online Mendelian Inheritence in Man
• Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas at Brno
• A photographic tour of St. Thomas’ Abbey, Brno, Czech Republic
• Johann Gregor Mendel: Why his discoveries were ignored for 35 (72) years (German)
• This has the basics of Mendel and is more appropriate in style for a GCSE student
• Gregor Mendel (1822-1884).
• Biography of Gregor Mendel.
• Gregor Mendel: Planting the Seeds of Genetics.
• wikipedia.

Cannabis, also known as marijuana or ganja (from Hindi/Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā), is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis. The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature flowers and subtending leaves of pistillate (”female”) plants. The resinous form, known as hashish, consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material.

The major biologically active chemical compound in cannabis is Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly referred to as THC.

Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory, although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that about four percent of the world’s adult population use cannabis annually and 0.6 percent daily. The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products
became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement.

History

Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (गांजा/গাঁজা ganja in modern Indic languages). The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.

Cannabis was also known to the Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans.Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning “way to produce smoke”), a probable origin of the modern word ‘Cannabis’. Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—“those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance. Members of the cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace,
are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather
basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to
a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.

The production of cannabis for drug use remains illegal throughout most of the world through for ex. International Opium Convention of 1925, the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937, the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances,
while simple possession of small quantities is either legal, or treated
as an addiction rather than a criminal offense in a few countries.

Medical use

A synthetic form of one chemical in marijuana, Delta-9
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is a controversial treatment for medical
use. The American Marijuana Policy Project, a pro-cannabis organization, claims that cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. Other medical uses may included fighting cancer, according to an isolated study by scientists in Italy. This study states that cannabidiol (CBD), a chemical found in marijuana, inhibits growth of cancer cells in animals.

The FDA and comparable authorities in Western Europe, including the Netherlands, have not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease. The current view of the United States Food and Drug Administration is that if there is any future of marijuana as a medicine, it lies in
its isolated components, the cannabinoids and their synthetic
derivatives.

A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named Dronabinol has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer’s patients.Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/AIDS and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than “pot” and has not been shown to be effective or safe.

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exist, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma
patients who smoke marijuana, but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to
sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.

Medical marijuana is used for analgesia, or pain relief. “Marijuana is used for analgesia only in the context of a handful of illnesses (e.g., headache, dysentery, menstrual cramps,
and depression) that are often cited by marijuana advocates as medical reasons to justify the drug being available as a prescription medication.” It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder. Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve tics in people with obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found. A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer’s disease. THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.

Another use for medical marijuana is movement disorders. Marijuana is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with multiple sclerosis; this has been acknowledged by the Institute of Medicine, but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures.Marijuana “numbs” the nervous system slightly, possibly preventing shock. A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

New breeding and cultivation techniques

It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early ’70s, when delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol was discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as “Thai sticks” were already available at that time. In fact, the sinsemilla technique of producing high-potency marijuana has been practiced in India for centuries. Sinsemilla (Spanish for “without seed”) is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC
production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years. The average levels of THC in marijuana sold in United States rose from 3.5% in 1988 to 7% in 2003 and 8.5% in 2006.

“Skunk” cannabis is a potent strain of cannabis, grown through selective breeding and usually hydroponics, that is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa and C. indica. Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in coffeehouses in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.

The average THC content of Skunk #1 is 8.2%; it is a 4-way combination of the cannabis strains Afghani indica, Mexican Gold, Colombian Gold, and Thai: 75% sativa, 25% indica.This was done via extensive breeding by cultivators in California in the 1970s using the traditional outdoor cropping methods used for centuries.

In proposed revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government is considering rescheduling cannabis back from C to B. One of the reasons is the high-potency marijuana.

A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18–45 years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels (marijuana with 9–23% THC), as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking-style to the higher THC content.^[44] High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single joint lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. When subjects smoke on several occasions per day, accumulation of THC in blood-serum may occur.

Another study showed that consumption of 15 mg of Delta(9)-THC resulted in no learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks delta(9)-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.

Legal status

Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant’s cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market. There are also changes in a more restrictive direction such as the closing of coffee shops in the Netherlands, the closing of the open drug market in Christiania, Copenhagen, the Gonzales v. Raich rule in 2005 that the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution allow the federal government to ban the use of marijuana, including medical use anywhere in the United States.

Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

Effects

Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum
amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight^. (which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency). A related compound, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin, also known as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas.

Health issues

Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis

A recent study by the Canadian government found cannabis contained more toxic substances than tobacco smoke.The study determined that marijuana smoke contained 20 times more ammonia, and five times more hydrogen cyanide and nitrous oxides than tobacco smoke. In spite of this, a recent large-scale study found no correlation between heavy marijuana use and lung cancer, despite noting that cannabis contains the same carcinogens as tobacco. The same study found a 20-fold increase in lung-cancer rates of smokers who consumed two or more packs of cigarettes per day. These researchers postulated that the THC present may have a “protective effect” by causing aging cells to die before they become cancerous. Other recent research suggest the cannabinoid CBD may stop certain cancers from spreading, although not in concentrations consumed during smoking.

In contrast, a study published in the January 2008 edition of the journal Respirology found that “regular” cannabis smokers who developed bullous lung disease did so on average 24 years sooner than tobacco smoking counterparts. Researchers attributed this to the inhalation of a larger volume of smoke, and typically holding it for four times longer than tobacco smokers. Bullous lung disease is considered an uncommon cause of respiratory distress. In general, habitual inhalation of any kind of smoke is detrimental to lung health.

Cannabis use has been linked to exacerbating the effects of depression, psychosis, schizophrenia, bronchitis, and emphysema by several peer-reviewed studies for those who are vulnerable to such illnesses based on personal or family history.More recently, the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study published research showing an increased risk of psychosis for cannabis users with a certain genetic predisposition, held by 25% of the population.

In July 2007, British medical journal The Lancet published a study that indicates that cannabis users have, on average, a 41% greater risk of developing psychosis than non-users. The risk was most pronounced in cases with an existing risk of psychotic disorder, and was said to grow up to 200% for the most-frequent users.

A 2008 study by the National Institutes of Health suggested a link between chronic marijuana smoking and increased risk of heart attack or stroke.

Relationship with other drugs

Since its origin in the 1950s, the “gateway drug” hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of cannabis drug policy in the United States. One variant is that people, upon trying cannabis for the first time and not finding it dangerous, are then tempted to try other, harder drugs. These models of cause and effect has been debated.A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on “social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects” to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.

Some argue that the purported relationship between marijuana and more illicit drugs, as proposed by the “gateway theory”, is methodologically flawed. A common argument is that a new user of cannabis who doesn’t find it dangerous will see the difference between public information regarding the drug and their own experiences, and apply this distrust to public knowledge of other, more powerful drugs. Some studies support the “gateway drug” model. An example from 2007: A stratified, random sample of 1943 adolescents was recruited from secondary schools across Victoria, Australia, at age 14–15 years. This cohort was interviewed on eight occasions until the age of 24–25 years. At age 24 years, 12% of the sample had used amphetamines in the past year, with 1–2% using at least weekly. Young adult amphetamine use was predicted strongly by adolescent drug use and was associated robustly with other drug use and dependence in young adulthood. Associations were stronger for more frequent users. Among young adults who had not been using amphetamines at age 20 years, the strongest predictor of use at age 24 years was the use of other drugs, particularly cannabis, at 20 years. Those who were smoking cannabis at the age of 15 were as much as 15
times more likely to be using amphetamines in their early 20s.

Analysts have hypothesized that the illegal status of cannabis is a possible cause of a gateway drug effect, reasoning that cannabis users are likely to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs in order to acquire cannabis. But it is said that Marijuana is not as harmful or addicting as any other drug.Some contend that by this argument, al ay also be regarded as gateway drugs. Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.

A current doctoral thesis from Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, on the neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure, gives support for the cannabis gateway hypothesis in relation to adult opiate abuse. THC exposed rats showed increased motivation for opiate drug use under conditions of stress. However, the cannabis exposure did not correlate to amphetamine use.

A study published in The Lancet on 24 March 2007 was twenty drugs were assigned a risk from zero to three. Dr. David Nutt et al. asked medical, scientific and legal experts to rate 20
different drugs on nine parameters:

Cannabis was ranked seventeenth of twenty for mean physical harm score and eleventh for mean dependence score. Not shown is the mean social harm score, which rated ninth, in a tie with Amphetamine.

Poly drug use is not unusual among established users; statistics from Spain show that cannabis users aged 15 -34 also used amphetamine (9%), ecstasy (11%) or cocaine (18%) the same year.

Classification

While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either Stimulant, Depressant, Hallucinogen, or Antipsychotic, cannabis, containing both THC and CBD, exhibits a mix of all sections, leaning towards the Hallucinogen section due to THC being the primary constituent.

Methods of consumption

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

These forms are not exclusive, and mixtures of two or more different forms of cannabis are frequently consumed. Between the many different strains of cannabis and the various ways that it is prepared, there are innumerable variations similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic beverages that are consumed.

Smoking

Cannabis can be smoked in a variety of ways, some of which are more popular than others. The most common methods of smoking cannabis involve the use of implements such as bongs and smoking pipes, or rolling joints or blunts. These methods differ by: the preparation of the cannabis plant before use; the parts of the cannabis plant which is used; and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation.

Vaporization

A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C), which turns the active ingredients into gas without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 392 °F (200°C) at 0.02 mm Hg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure). A lower proportion of toxic chemicals are released than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A MAPS-NORML study using a Volcano vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor. However, an older study using less sophisticated vaporizers found more toxins.The effects from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of
smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC.

Eating

As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally.

Although hashish
is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in ethanol, or combined with butter or other lipids.The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal cannabis are almost immediate.

Smoking cannabis results in a significant loss of THC and other cannabinoids in the exhaled smoke, by decomposition on burning, and in smoke that is not inhaled. In contrast, all of the active constituents enter the body when cannabis is ingested. It has been shown that the primary active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more
psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC by the liver. Titration to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation.

Other methods

Cannabis material can be leached in high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create “Green Dragon”. This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. Although THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 grams per liter), enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb.

Cannabis culture

There are multiple drug subcultures based on the use of different drugs - the culture surrounding cannabis, for example, is very different from that of heroin,due to the different sort of experiences, sentiment amongst the crowd attracted to the drug in question, as well as the problems the users encounter.

See also

References

Further reading

External links

• Marijuana in Jamaica
• Marijuana Policy Project
• National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws
• Wiktionary appendix of cannabis slang
• Various slang terms for cannabis
• Comprehensive Cannabis Faqs and Marijuana information
• Extensive list of notable cannabis users
• Debunking Myths about Marijuana Since 2002
• Research paper on the effects of marijuana
• The Report of the Canadian Government Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs - 1972 - DRCNet Online Library of Drug Policy
• Marihuana Medical Access Regulations in Canada
• Pot Shrinks Tumors; Government Knew in ‘74
• University of Maryland, CECAR: Marijuana
• www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/marijuana

Cannabis is a genus of flowering plants that includes three putative species, Cannabis sativa L., Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. These three taxa are indigenous to central Asia and surrounding regions. Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinal purposes, and as a psychoactive. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (Δ⁹- tetrahydrocannabinol), one psychoactive molecule that produces the “high” associated with marijuana. The drug consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced.The cultivation and possession of Cannabis for recreational use is outlawed in most countries.

Etymology

The plant name cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis), via Latin cannabis, originally a Scythian or Thracian word, also loaned into Persian as kanab. English hemp (Old English hænep) may be an early loan (predating Grimm’s Law) from the same source. In Hebrew the word is קַנַּבּוֹס [qan:a'bos].

The further origin of the Scythian term is uncertain, although it is possible that it traces back to the Assyrian word ‘qunubu’ (way to produce smoke) wich was used to refer to the plant.

Description

Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound, with serrate leaflets. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number
gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing
conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.

Cannabis usually has imperfect flowers with staminate “male” and pistillate “female” flowers occurring on separate plants, although hermaphroditic plants sometimes occur. Male flowers are borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on racemes.It is not unusual for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers, though these are referred to as ‘intersexual’ or hermaphroditic rather than monoecious, since staminate and pistillate structures appear at different points on the plant, not within the same flower.

Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.

All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated and produce “seeds” that are technically called achenes. Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants with the possible exception of C. sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described as “auto-flowering” and may be day-neutral.

Cannabis is naturally diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced. Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant which includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north west of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term usually refers to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids which produce mental and physical effects when consumed. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried buds or flowers (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hashish oil.In the early 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for drug purposes.

Taxonomy

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle (Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the Hemp family (Cannabaceae).Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the Celtidaceae clade, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic group.

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:

Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the “high” one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or “chemotype,” based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F₁) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are “groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.” Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.

Early classifications

The Cannabis genus was first classified using the “modern” system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant.

Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.

20th Century

In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch, as alternative names. In 1929, renown plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav.In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties.This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other’s integrity.The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq. The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species. According to Schultes’ and Anderson’s descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed “sativa” drug strains from wide-leafed “indica” drug strains.

Ongoing research

Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an “extremely high” degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species.

Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production, within the studied populations. mHillig and Mahlberg concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was submitted ahead of his 2004 manuscript with Mahlberg, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis. In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa.Another paper published by Hillig on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in their collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

As of 2007, most taxonomy web sites continue to list Cannabis as a single species.

Popular usage

The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on vthe terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. “Sativa” is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. “Indica” is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. “Ruderalis” is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as “pure indica,” “mostly indica,” “indica/sativa,” “mostly sativa”, or “pure sativa.”

In September of 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA. The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International. As of 25 Feb 2007 the article is listed as “in press,” and there is no mention in the abstract of “Rasta.”

Wild cannabis

Wild C. sativa subsp. indica is mainly confined to hash producing areas such as Afghanistan, and parts of Morocco. In the U.S. wild cannabis can grow wild in mid-west areas such as Kansas and Nebraska. This type is not valued for recreational use and is viewed as a weed by farmers. Wild C. sativa subsp. sativa shows great local variation; for example, in warm places, it can reach heights up to 20 feet (6 m) tall, but in colder climates it can be as short as 1 foot (30 cm) in height. Almost every single flower branch bears a seed. The wild C. sativa subsp. sativa has long, thin and airy buds and a Christmas tree shape structure. Wild C. sativa subsp. indica remains compact and bushy with thick buds for the most part, and is sometimes used by the locals for hashish production. Generally, there are far fewer seeds in wild C. sativa subsp. indica.

In many areas, wild or naturalized populations of Cannabis are considered invasive species, and are often targeted by government-sponsored eradication programmes.

Reproduction

Breeding systems

Cannabis is predominantly dioecious, although many monoecious varieties have been described. Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.m Many populations have been described as sexually labile.

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the female plants are preferred. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber
production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate between licit crops of monoecious hemp and illicit dioecious drug crops.

Mechanisms of sex determination

Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present. At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925. Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata’s interpretation, and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the
XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using “an X/autosome dosage type”.

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards. Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious “Kentucky” hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious “Kentucky” hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious “Kentucky” hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996. Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP.Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating: It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination.

Various strains of cannabis

Although there are hundreds of strains of cannabis in existence, there are also many rumors and urban legends. Many alleged strains, such as Purple Haze, are very predominant in pop-culture, but the actual existence of many of these strains is uncertain and the slang terms used to refer to these strains do not appear to be used by botanists. Some strains, such as G-, are acknowledged to be urban legends.

Strains of cannabis Acapulco gold, BC Bud, Chocolate Thai, Panama Red, G-13,

Aspects of Cannabis production and use

See also

External links

• International Plant Names Index (IPNI)
• The Endocannabinoid System Network (ECSN) - Contains medical information to the Endocannabinoid System
• Wikipedia.org

• UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannabis: Why We Should Care (2006)
• EMCDDA drugs profile: Cannabis (2007)

- The Project Gutenberg EBook of My Reminiscences, by Rabindranath Tagore
Illustrator: Sasi Kumar Hesh
Release Date: August 2, 2007 [EBook #22217]
Language: English
Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

Alpha-lipoic acid protects the liver from poisoning by environmental toxins, such as industrial chemicals or toxic heavy metals, as well as being used (in injectible form) to save the lives of people who have mistakenly eaten poisonous mushrooms.

What is alpha-Lipoic acid?

Alpha-Lipoic acid (also known as thioctic acid) is a vitamin like substance which plays an important role in the body’s energy supply processes. Alpha-lipoic acid is also important within the body as a powerful antioxidant capable of protecting both the lipid (cell membrane) and aqueous (cytoplasmic) cellular compartments from free radical induced damage. Alpha-lipoic acid is mainly obtained from the diet, although small amounts are also manufactured within the body. Red meat (especially liver, spinach and brewer’s yeast are good sources of alpha-lipoic acid.

What does alpha-Lipoic acid do?

Alpha-lipoic acid works in conjunction with the B vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid to convert sugars and fat into energy within the body. Alpha-lipoic acid, together with its active metabolite dihydrolipoic acid, are powerful antioxidants which uniquely are equally effective in protecting both the aqueous and lipid compartments of the cell from free radical damage.

Clinical studies have shown supplementation with alpha-lipoic acid to have the following benefits:

• Alpha-lipoic acid inhibits nerve damage, including diabetic neuropathy characteristic of diabetic patients.
• Alpha-lipoic acid reduces insulin resistance and improves blood glucose balance in diabetic patients.
• Alpha-lipoic acid protects the liver from poisoning by environmental toxins, such as industrial chemicals or toxic heavy metals, as well as being used (in injectible form) to save the lives of people who have mistakenly eaten poisonous mushrooms.

What evidence is there for the efficacy of alpha-Lipoic acid?

(i) Diabetes: In patients with type II diabetes, treatment with alpha-lipoic acid reduces insulin resistance and improves glucose balance (Jacob et al, 1995; Jacob et al, 1996; Henriksen EJ, 2006). A number of randomised controlled clinical trials have investigated the effect of alpha-lipoic acid treatment for diabetic neuropathy, using different study designs, treatment duration, dose, mode of administration and patient populations (Zeigler et al, 1995; Zeigler & Gries, 1997; Zeigler et al, 1997; Reljanovic et al, 1999; Ruhnau et al, 1999; Ametov et al, 2003). Both short term and longer term treatments using intravenous or oral administration of alpha-lipoic acid resulted in significant clinical improvement in symptoms (pain, numbness, etc) in peripheral or cardiac neuropathy. These studies also confirmed a favorable safety profile for alpha-lipoic acid.

(ii) Other disorders: Randomised controlled clinical trials have described benefits of alpha-lipoic acid administration for patients with multiple sclerosis (Yadav et al, 2005), glaucoma (Filina et al, 1995) and Burning Mouth Syndrome (Femiano & Scully, 2002).

Are there adverse effects from taking alpha-Lipoic acid?

Alpha-lipoic acid is generally well tolerated, although individuals may rarely suffer from gastrointestinal disturbance or a skin rash. Alpha-lipoic acid is very safe, with no reports of significant adverse effects. The toxicity of alpha-lipoic acid is very low, with an LD50 in rats of 500mg/Kg bodyweight. Patients with diabetes taking alpha-lipoic acid may require modification of their insulin medication.

How much alpha-Lipoic acid should you take?

The generally recommended intake for alpha-lipoic acid is 50 to 150mg/day. For the treatment of specific disorders outlined above, doses of up to 800mg daily may be required.

References

Ametov AS, Barinov A, Dyck PJ et al (2003) The sensory symptoms of diabetic polyneuropathy are improved with alpha-lipoic acid: the SYDNEY trial. Diabetes Care; 26(7): 770-776.

Femiano F, Scully C (2002) Burning mouth syndrome: double blind controlled study of alpha-lipoic acid therapy. J Oral Pathol Med; 31(5): 267-279.

Filina AA, Davydova NG, Endrikhovski SN et al (1995) Lipoic acid as a means of metabolic therapy of open angle glaucoma. Vestn Oftalmol; 111: 6-8.

Henriksen EJ (2006) Exercise training and the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid in the treatment of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Free Radic Biol Med; 40(1): 3-12.

Jacob S, Henriksen EJ, Schiemann Al et al (1995) Enhancement of glucose disposal in patients with type 2 diabetes by alpha-lipoic acid. Arzneimittel-Forschung; 45(8): 872-874.

Jacob S, Henriksen EJ, Tritschler HJ et al (1996) Improvement of insulin stimulated glucose disposal in type 2 diabetes after repeated parenteral administration of thioctic acid. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diab; 104(3): 284-288.

Reljanovic M, Reichel G, Rett K et al (1999) Treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy with the antioxidant thioctic acid: a two year multicentre randomized double blind placebo controlled trial. Free Radic res; 31(3): 171-179.

Ruhnau KJ, Meissner HP, Finn JR et al (1999) Effects of 3 week oral treatment with the antioxidant thioctic acid in symptomatic diabetic polyneuropathy. Diabet Med; 16(12): 1040-1043.

Yadav V, Marracci G, Lovera J et al (2005) Lipoic acid in multiple sclerosis: a pilot study. Mult Scler; 11(2): 159-165.

Zeigler D, Gries Fa (1997) Alpha-lipoic acid in the treatment of diabetic peripheral and cardiac autonomic neuropathy. Diabetes; 46(S2): 62-66.

Ziegler D, Hanefeild M, Ruhnau KJ et al (1995) Treatment of symptomatic diabetic peripheral neuropathy with the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid. A 3 week multicentre randomized controlled trial. Diabetologia; 38(12): 1425-1433.

Zeigler d, Schatz H, Conrad F et al (1997) Effects of treatment with the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid on cardiac autonomic neuropathy in NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care; 20(12): 1918-1921.

The thali is a well balanced meal with dishes that include rice, dal, vegetables, flat breads, dahi (yoghurt), chutney, pickle, papad and a sweet dish.

The tastes are well rounded from the sublime yogurts to the fiery curries, from the fresh salads to the pickled vegetables, from the sweet to the sour chutneys. The texture too runs from the crunchy papads to the softness of the rice and the soupy lentils.

© Kavita Mehta

Starting procedure
For the best germination results, we advise you to follow these tips.

Soil
- You can let the seeds germinate directly in soil. Place them in 50% moist soil at a depth of 1cm. It is best to use special soil for seedlings, a balanced soil, which has a pH of around 6 and does not contain high levels of nutrients. Make sure the soil doesn’t get too dry. It’s best to have it covered with transparent plastic o r a lit until the seeds have popped out of the ground and become visible in approximately 3 to 7 days. The temperature should be around 20 degrees Celsius (68 F).

- You can also germinate seeds in between wet tissue or cotton wool, which you have to keep moist and in the dark at room temperature. After a couple of days they will have sprouted and are ready to be transplanted into little pots with soil, preferably special soil for seedlings. After approximately 2 weeks you can transplant them into the ground or bigger pots.

Hydroponics
You can put the seeds directly in soaked rockwool cubes or mapito. Use water with a pH level of 5.5 to soak them to come to a pH of around 6 in the block. Then the are able to transport all nutrients that are required to grow. Be very careful, the plants can easily burn and dry out. That’s why you should keep the baby plants moist and don’t give them too much fertilizer.

Cultivation outdoors
Once the plants are big enough, 15-20 cm (6-8 inches), they can be planted outdoors, in rich soil in the full ground or in large pots. In the south of Europe, or other warm and sunny regions, this can be as early as March, while in colder countries like Holland one should wait until the beginning of May. Outdoors, the development of your plants is determined by the amount of sunshine, rain and wind. It’s your task to help nature by providing sufficient water and nutrients. Outdoors, your plants can grow over 3 metres tall! When the light cycle has shortened to 15 hours, the plants will start to bloom. With some luck, depending mostly on favourable weather during the last months, they will produce a lot of buds, up to a kilo per plant. The plant and yield can become very impressive.

Cultivation in green houses
The quality of plants grown in greenhouses can be better than plants grown outside. They can grow as indoor plants, but have the big advantage of sunlight. Here, the plants can be well controlled. If you artificially shorten the light cycle to 12 hours, by covering the plants or whole greenhouse, you can harvest in the middle of summer and if organised a few times per year.

Indoor Growing

Home growing has become very popular, which is logical if you consider you can supply yourself with a top-quality product that is not contaminated with high levels of pesticides, or in the case of hash bought from the street, is polluted with chemicals or shoe polish, which you have to buy for exorbitant prices. Another advantage of indoor growing is that you don’t have to worry about thieves ripping your outdoor garden in the middle of the night.

The quality of indoor plants is often very high. Under high pressure sodium lamps it is possible for almost everyone who has a little space available to grow their own. Indoor growing is a little more complicated because you have to control the whole environment, but your effort will be rewarded once you have the conditions right. Then it is as easy as anything! Make sure the temperature does not exceed 25 °C (77 F) or get cooler than 20°C (68 F). The room should be well ventilated and constantly refreshed with air. Enclosed humidity should be around 80% during the growing period, but needs to be lower than 60% at the end of the flowering period to prevent mould.

We advise you to read a book on growing or get yourself informed by other growers who have some experience before getting started. Although growing indoors isn’t difficult, having some knowledge of the basic techniques is definitely a big advantage.

Nutrients
The plants can best absorb all necessary nutrients at a pH value of 5.5 - 6, making sure all nutrients are transported within the plant. This way the whole plant thrives, which results in maximum growth and leads to more quantity of top-quality product. The plants require different levels of nutrients during different stages of their life. Many nutrient companies have a schedule for the optimum dosages when their products are used. You can also use biological stimulators, such as rooting and flowering stimulator, that activate the organic bacterial life, or micro-organisms, and therefore make the plant stronger and healthier.Some of these stimulators can make quite a difference.

Sinsemilla (without seeds)
Most cannabis enthusiasts grow for the production of top-quality buds for themselves and their friends to consume. If this is the case, then you don’t want to have seeds in your buds as this makes them less potent and is no good to smoke or vaporise. In fact, it may even give you headache! To prevent the plants making seeds, you have to remove the male plants by “sexing” them. The males are of no use other than to procreate. The female plants are the ones to keep, as they produce the wonderful tasting and highly appreciated effects on the body and mind with their bountiful buds. They are the ones that should stay to bloom until they are ripe to pick.

Cannabis male and female plants are alike at the vegetative stage and sex shows only when the flowers appear. From that moment on, the plants become distinguishable and the male and female look quite different. Photo .. is a male plant. This is how a female pistil in late flower looks like. And here you can see a closeup of a single male calyx (flower) (Photo ?). In the pre-flowering stage, one can sex the plants as described above by looking for the males to throw away. You should look at the main stem at every internode to find the flowers. Most likely you will find them in the upper part of the plant.

The Harvest
You should only harvest when the flowers are ripe - not before, but also not long after they are ready. It is time to harvest when the resin glands are swollen to their maximum size, which you can see best with a magnifying glass. Another less accurate way is to watch if the buds are still getting fatter with new growth. When this process of daily production has stopped and most of the little stigmas (hairs) on the flowers have turned from white to brown-orange, it is time to harvest the plants. First take off the big fan leaves, then hang the plants upside down in a cool, dry and dark place to dry out. About 14 days later, you can trim off the last few leaves so that only the buds remain. Now you are ready to experience your own grown quality super buds.

Read more:

(list is in edit)

Domesticated rice comprises two species of food crops in the Poaceae (”true grass”) family, Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima. These plants are native to tropical and subtropical southern Asia and southeastern Africa.(The term “wild rice” can refer to the wild species of Oryza, but conventionally refers to species of the related genus Zizania, both wild and domesticated.) Rice is grown as a monocarpic annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce a ratoon crop and survive for up to 20 years.Rice can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility. The grass has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long. The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick.

Rice is a staple for a large part of the world’s human population, especially in Latin America and East, South and Southeast Asia, making it the second-most consumed cereal grain. Rice provides more than one fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by humans. In early 2008, some governments and retailers began rationing supplies of the grain due to fears of a global rice shortage.